Book reading "Beyond Choice"

This book, by Alexander Sanger, touches many contemporary issues regarding the reproduction choices, technologies and government polices on trying to intervene the reproduction behaviour of its citizen. A well written and very informative book. Here I quote some of discussions found in this book.


The dangers that reproductive technologies pose

While the introduction of new reproductive technologies may initially expand women's and men's reproductive options, it does not always lead to an expansion of reproductive rights.

Technological advances in controlling or advancing reproduction throw off the balance of power in the batter of the sexes in their fight for control of reproduction.

From many historical examples, the lesson to be learned is that no reproductive technology will be permitted by society unless an ethical and moral framework is laid down for its use and unless both men and women benefit from its use.

A few important questions need to be answered, do reproductive technologies lead to bad individual choices that collectively lead to bad results for society? does the harm caused by reproductive technologies outweigh their benefit? if so ,then must these technologies, and by extension reproductive freedom be curtailed?

The unintended consequences of new reproductive technologies force us to examine the impacts, if any, of collective use of such technologies to society.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic screening can detect whether or not an embryo carries a defective gene and the parents can choose to have the child, have an abortion and try again. Genetic screening at the beginning of a pregnancy offers the hope of a healthy child to those who might not otherwise have a chance to have one. But genetic technology can do more. The rapid scientific progress being made that would give the ability to eliminate, add, or manipulate certain genes in an embryo via genetic engineering.

That means genetic technologies on the one hand may increase the health and wantedness of children, thereby increasing their chance of survival, but they may also be doing harm to these same individuals and society at large. We don't know what every gene does and which genes do more than one things, and manipulate a gene can lead unintended consequences to the child. The danger of eugenics are present when we permit genetic engineering.

Whether parents are motivated by a desire to give their children the best start in life, by a desire for perfection, or by a inclination to see their children as a reflection of themselves, some will use whatever technology permits with little thought as to the consequences to society.

(Today's BBC news, The US Senates unanimously passed the bill against discrimination on employment based on personal genetic details.)

Government policy on fertility rate

While some governments see the overpopulated population pose the threats on economic slow down and social instability, many others see low fertility rate, especially below the replacement level is detrimental to the nation's future.

However, scientists around world have doubted about the effectiveness of either pro-natal or anti-natal policy.

China as one of most distinctive examples of using coercive method to reduce birth rate.It has adapted "one child" policy since later 70s.

As we saw in China, when family size declines, the law of unintended consequences kicks in. Sex-selected abortion, even though it is illegal, and a resulting skewed sex ratio.

Other western countries, like French, Canada are adapting pro natal policies in hoping to booster up the declined fertility rate.

Prof Amy Ong Tsui noted, "One should not overemphasize the role of supply-oriented policies and programs in recent fertility declines and disregard the forces that raise demand for those public goods and services." The factors that increase demand for family planning and the lead families to want to limit their size, include, female education, an increase in non physical sectors of the economy, and more food availability. The academic consensus is that women's education, economic development, and family planning programs all contribute to fertility decline.

Is it too expensive for a nation to purchase its own descendant?

In many developed countries, governments adopt non compulsory incentive polices such as directly subsidize childbirth through cash bonuses and tax deducted benefits, or subsidize the childcare and education, housing benefit etc. Since these types of policies only encourage a certain outcome rather than require one, they will have uncertain effectiveness.

One study by Prof Junsen Zhang of childbearing trends in Canada has an interesting aspect. From 1921 to 1988, there were three separate incentives in Canada- a personal tax exemption for a child, a child tax credit, and family allowances for each child. The study shows that these incentives had positive and significant effects on birthrates, but the the elasticities of fertility seem to be rather small. The three transfer tax benefits for each women of reproductive age totaled $389 annually in 1988. At the time the cost of raising a child to age 18 was probably in the neighborhood of $100,000 not to mention the time, effort, and other costs incurred. Prof Zhang estimated that three programs would have to be increase over five times, to $1,982 annually, to bring the fertility rate up to 2.1, the replacement rate,from its then level of 1.7.

Interestingly, this latter dollar amount approximated the amount of the transfer tax subsidies to childbearing in various western European countries, including France.

(too be continued)